Thursday, June 22, 2017

SEBI Prohibition Acts of Insider Trading

The malpractice of ’insider trading’ affects the innocent investors. 

In simple terms ‘Insider Trading’ means selling or buying in securities on the basis of price sensitive unpublished information of a listed corporate which if published could lead to a fall or rise in the prices of shares of the corporate.

To tackle the problem of insider trading, SEBI issued the SEBI (Insider Trading) Regulations 1992. These regulations were further made stringent through amendments in 2015 and they were notified as the SEBI (Prohibition of Insider Trading) Regulations 2015.

The important definitions used in the regulations are:

(i) Dealing in securities means an act of subscribing, buying, selling or agreeing to subscribe, buy, sell or deal in any securities by any person either as principal or agent.

(ii) Insider means any person who, is or was connected with the company or is deemed to have been connected with the company, and who is reasonably expected to have access to unpublished price sensitive information in respect of securities of a company, or who has received or has had access to such unpublished price sensitive information.

(iii) A connected person means any person who:

(a) is a director, as defined in the Companies Act, 2013 of a company, or is deemed to be a director of that company by virtue of that Act, or

(b) occupies the position as an officer or an employee of the company or holds a position involving a professional or business relationship between himself and the company whether temporary or permanent and who may reasonably be expected to have an access to unpublished price sensitive information in relation to that company.

(iv) A person is deemed to be a connected person if such person:

(a) is a company under the same management or group or any subsidiary company thereof within the meaning of of the Companies Act, 2013 or sub-clause (g) of section 2 of the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act, 1969 as the case may be; or

(b) is an intermediary as specified in section 12 of SEBI Act, 1992, Investment company, Trustee Company, Asset Management Company or an employee or director thereof or an official of a stock exchange or of clearing house or corporation;

(c) is a merchant banker, share transfer agent, registrar to an issue, debenture trustee, broker, portfolio manager, investment advisor, sub-broker, investment company or an employee thereof, or, is a member of the board of trustees of a mutual fund or a member of the board of directors of the asset management company of a mutual fund or is an employee thereof who have a fiduciary relationship with the company;

(d) is a member of the board of directors, or an employee, of a public financial institution as defined in the Companies Act, 2013;

(e) is an official or an employee of a self regulatory organisation recognised or authorised by the Board of a regulatory body;

(f) is a relative of any of the aforementioned persons;

(g) is a banker of the company.

(h) relative of the connected person.

(v) Price sensitive information means any information which is related directly or indirectly to a company and which if published is likely to materially affect the price of securities of a company. It includes only such information which if published is likely to materially affect the price of securities of a company. The following is deemed to be price sensitive information:

(a) periodical financial results of the company;
(b) intended declaration of dividends (both interim and final);
(c) issue of securities or buy-back of securities;
(d) any major expansion plans or execution of new projects;
(e) amalgamation, mergers or takeovers;
(f) disposal of the whole or substantial part of the undertaking;
(g) significant changes in policies, plans or operations of the company.

(vi) Unpublished information means information which is not published by the company or its agents and is not specific in nature. However, speculative reports in print or electronic media are not considered as published information.

A) Prohibition on Dealing, Communicating or Counseling

Under this regulation, no insider should:

(a) either on his own behalf or on behalf of any other person, deal in securities of a company listed on any stock exchange when in possession of any unpublished price sensitive information;

(b) communicate, counsel or procure, directly or indirectly, any unpublished price sensitive information to any person who while in possession of such unpublished price sensitive information should not deal in securities. This is however, not applicable to any communication required in the ordinary course of business or profession or employment or under any law.

The regulations require that no company should deal in the securities of another company or associate of that other company while in possession of any unpublished price sensitive information.

B) Investigation
If SEBI suspects any person of having violated the provisions of insider regulation, it may make inquiries with such person or with the stock exchanges, mutual funds, other persons associated with the securities market, intermediaries and self-regulatory organisation in the securities market to form a prima facie opinion as to whether there is any violation of insider regulations.

Image result for sebi regulations on insider tradingWhere SEBI forms a prima facie opinion that it is necessary to investigate and inspect the books of accounts, either documents and records of an insider or the stock exchanges, mutual funds, other persons associated with the securities market, intermediaries and self-regulatory organisation in the securities market, it may appoint an investigating authority for the purpose.

The investigating authority has to submit its report to SEBI, after completion of investigations in accordance with the provisions of the regulations.

After considering the report, SEBI is required to communicate its findings to the suspected person and seek a reply from such person. Such suspected person is required to reply to the findings within 21 days to SEBI. After receipt of the reply, SEBI may take such measures to safeguard and protect the interest of investors, securities market and for due compliance with the insider trading regulations.

SEBI also has powers to appoint an auditor to investigate into the books of accounts or the affairs of the insider or the stock exchanges, mutual funds, other persons associated with the securities market, intermediaries and self-regulatory organisation in the securities market.

C) Disclosures and Internal Procedure for Prevention of Insider Trading
All listed companies and organisations associated with securities markets such as intermediaries, asset management company, trustees of mutual funds, self regulatory organisations recognised by SEBI, recognised stock exchanges, clearing house or corporations, public financial institutions and professional firms such as auditors, accountancy firms, law firms, analysts, consultants, etc., assisting or advising listed companies, are required to frame a code of internal procedures and conduct as per the prescribed format provided in SEBI (Prohibition of Insider Trading) Regulations without diluting it any manner and ensure compliance of the same.

The regulations require certain disclosures to be made by directors, officers and substantial shareholders in listed companies. These are:

(i) Initial Disclosure:
(a) Any person who holds more than 5% shares or voting rights in any listed company should disclose to the company in prescribed form, the number of shares or voting rights held by such person, on becoming such holder, within 2 working days of:
(i) the receipt of intimation of allotment of shares; or
(ii)
the acquisition of shares or voting rights, as the case may be.
(b) Any person who is a director or officer of a listed company should disclose to the company in prescribed form, the number of shares or voting rights held by such person, within 2 working days of becoming a director or officer of the company.

(ii) Continual Disclosure

(a) Any person who holds more than 5% shares or voting rights in any listed company should disclose to the company in prescribed form the number of shares or voting rights held and change in shareholding or voting rights, even if such change results in shareholding falling below 5%, if there has been change in such holdings from the last disclosure and such change exceeds 2% of total shareholding or voting rights in the company.

(b) Any person who is a director or officer of a listed company, should disclose to the company in prescribed form, the total number of shares or voting rights held and change in shareholding or voting rights, if there has been a change in such holdings from the last disclosure made and the change exceeds Rs. 5 lakh in value or 25,000 shares or 1% of total shareholding or voting rights, whichever is lower. The disclosure mentioned above should be made within 2 working days of:
(i) the receipt of intimation of allotment of shares, or
(ii) the acquisition or sale of shares or voting rights, as the case may be.
(iii) Disclosure by Company to Stock Exchanges

Every listed company, within two days of receipt, should disclose to all stock exchanges on which the company is listed, the information relating to continual and initial disclosure given above. The disclosures required under this regulation may also be made through electronic filing in accordance with the system devised by the stock exchanges. Further, the SEBI Act, which inter-alia, prescribes the penalty for insider trading (Section 15G), was amended in 2002 to increase the penalty for insider trading to Rs 25 crore or three times the amount of profits made out of insider trading, whichever is higher.

SEBI Regulations to Stock Brokers

One of the main functions of SEBI is to register and regulate the functioning of various types of intermediaries and persons associated with securities market in a manner as to ensure smooth functioning of the markets and protection of interests of the investors. 

These intermediaries, as detailed in the SEBI Act are: stock-brokers, sub- broker, share transfer agents, bankers to an issue, trustees of trust deed, registrars to an issue, merchant bankers, underwriters, portfolio managers, investment advisers, depositories, participants, custodians of securities, foreign institutional investors, credit rating agencies, asset management companies, clearing members of a clearing corporation, trading member of a derivative segment of a stock exchange, collective investment schemes, venture capital funds, mutual funds, and any other intermediary associated with the securities market.

SEBI had issued regulations governing the registration and regulatory framework for each of these intermediaries. However, given the fact that many requirements and obligations of most intermediaries are common, SEBI consolidated these requirements and issued the SEBI (Intermediaries) Regulations, 2008. These regulations were notified on May 26, 2009.

These regulations apply to all the intermediaries mentioned above, except foreign institutional investors, foreign venture capital investors, mutual funds, collective investment schemes and venture capital funds.
                              Image result for sebi regulations intermediaries act
The salient features of the Regulations are as under:

(a) The SEBI Regulations put in place a comprehensive regulation which is applicable to all intermediaries. The common requirements such as grant of registration, general obligations, common code of conduct, common procedure for action in case of default and miscellaneous provisions are applicable for all intermediaries.

(b) An applicant can file application in the prescribed format along with additional information as required under the relevant regulations along with the requisite fees. The existing intermediaries may, within the prescribed time, file the disclosure in the specified form. The disclosures are required to be made public by uploading the information on the website specified by SEBI. The information of commercial confidence and private information furnished to SEBI shall be treated confidential. In the event intermediary wishes to operate in a capacity as an intermediary in a new category, such person may only file the additional shortened forms disclosing the specific requirements of the new category as per the relevant regulations.

(c) The Fit and Proper criteria have been modified to make it principle based. The common code of conduct has been specified at one place.

(d) The registration granted to intermediaries has been made permanent unless surrendered by the intermediary or suspended or cancelled in accordance with these regulations.

(e) Procedure for action in case of default and manner of suspension or cancellation of certificate has been simplified to shorten the time usually faced by the parties without compromising with the right of reasonable opportunity to be heard. Surrender of certificate has been enabled without going through lengthy procedures.

(f) While common requirements will be governed by the new regulations, the intermediaries specific requirements will continue to be as per the relevant regulations applicable to individual intermediaries. The relevant regulations will be amended to provide for the specific requirements.

Saturday, June 17, 2017

Fundamental Valuation Concepts of Time

Time Value of Money
Money has time value. A rupee is less valuable in the future than it is today. Time value of money could be studied under the following heads:

(a) Future value of a single cash flow
(b) Future value of an annuity
(c) Present value of a single cash flow
(d) Present value of an annuity

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a) Future Value of a Single Cash Flow

For a given present value (PV) of money, future value of money (FV) after a period ‘t’ for which compounding is done at an interest rate of ‘r’, is given by the equation
FV = PV (1+r)t

This assumes that compounding is done at discrete intervals. However, in case of continuous compounding, the future value is determined using the formula
FV = PV * ert

where the compounding factor is calculated by taking natural logarithm (log to base). e=2.71828

Example 1: Calculate the value 5 years hence of a deposit of Rs.1,000 made today if the interest rate is 10%.

Solution: By discrete compounding
FV = 1,000 * (1+0.10)5 = 1,000* (1.1)5 = 1,000* 1.61051 = Rs.1,610.51
By continuous compounding:
FV = 1,000 * e(0.10 * 5) = 1,000* 1.648721 = Rs.1,648.72



Example 2: Find the value of Rs. 50,000 deposited for a period of 3 years at the end of the period when the interest is 10% and continuous compounding is done.

Solution: Future Value = 50,000* e^(0.01*10*3) = Rs. 67,493.00
The future value (FV) of the present sum (PV) after a period ‘t’ for which compounding is done ‘m’ times a year at an interest rate of ‘r’, is given by the equation
FV = PV (1+(r/m))^mt

Example 3: How much does a deposit of Rs. 5,000 grow to at the end of 3 years, if the nominal rate of interest is 10% and compounding is done quarterly?

Solution: Future value = 5,000* ((1 + 0.10/4)^(4*3)) = Rs. 6,724.45

b) Future Value of an Annuity
The future value (FV) of a uniform cash flow (CF) made at the end of each period till the time of maturity ‘t’ for which compounding is done at the rate ‘r’ is given by
FV = CF*(1+r)t-1 + CF*(1+r)t-2 + ... + CF*(1+r)1+CF
= CF [{(1+r)t - 1} / r]

Example 4: Suppose, you deposit Rs. 1,000 annually in a bank for 5 years and your deposits earn a compound interest rate of 10 per cent, what will be value of this series of deposits (an annuity) at the end of 5 years? Assume that each deposit occurs at the end of the year.

Solution: Future value of this annuity is:
= Rs.1000*(1.10)4 + Rs.1000*(1.10)3 + Rs.1000*(1.10)2 + Rs.1000*(1.10) + Rs.1000
= Rs.1000*(1.4641) + Rs.1000*(1.3310)+Rs.1000*(1.2100) + Rs.1000*(1.10) + Rs.1000
= Rs. 6,105.00

In case of continuous compounding, the future value of annuity is determined using the formula FV = CF * (ert -1)/r

c) Present Value of a Single Cash Flow
Present value of (PV) of the future sum (FV) to be received after a period ‘t’ for which discounting is done at an interest rate of ‘r’, is given by the equation

In case of discrete discounting: PV = FV / (1+r)t

Example 5: What is the present value of Rs.1,000 payable 3 years hence, if the interest rate is 12 % p.a.

Solution: PV = 1000 / (1.12)3 i.e. = Rs.711.78

In case of continuous discounting: PV = FV * e-rt

Example 6: What is the present value of Rs. 50,000 receivable after 3 years at a discount rate of 10% under continuous discounting?

Solution: Present Value = 50,000/(exp^(0.01*10*3)) = Rs. 37,041.00

d) Present Value of an Annuity
The present value of annuity is the sum of the present values of all the cash inflows/outflows. Present value of an annuity (in case of discrete discounting)

PV = FV [{(1+r)t - 1 }/ {r * (1+r)t}]

Present value of an annuity (in case of continuous discounting) PVa = FVa * (1-e-rt)/r

Monday, June 05, 2017

Four Kinds of Investors

What are your attitude in saving little amount of money from income? Your individuality keeps you away from gaining more wealth.

Investors in our society are classified into 4 sectors:

A) Aggressive: These are gamblers who are always driven by the dreams of  earning higher returns. The higher the risk, the greater is the adrenalin rush for the aggressive personality. Not too good at taking advice, they take responsibility for their actions. These can manage their own portfolios and take risks beyond their capacity. They invest in high-risk instruments and try to time the market to maximise gains. They overexpose themselves in equities even when the goals are short-term. These investors are so confident about the prospects that they do not diversify to mitigate the risk which could affect their goals. To minimise the risk, they need to set realistic and achievable goals. 

Виды инвестиций
B) Passive: Safety is main priority to these people. These are careful to fault and rarely take any risks. These investors consider all options but end up putting their money in debt products like fixed deposits, provident fund, traditional life insurance schemes, etc as comfortable with low risks and predictable returns. They lack the confidence to take a decision even after understanding the pros and cons of other assets. Often money stays in bank account or in long-term assets. These cannot create significant wealth as inflation eats into their returns and the power compounding does not work for them.

C) Procrastinator: These are lazy investors. These possess enough knowledge and money in the bank  but postpone investing decisions in search of the best price. For these, it's best time to start immediately. These need frequent motivation to work upon their savings. 

D) Ignorant: These investors are forever waiting for others to tell them what to do because they know next to nothing about the market and are not willing to put in the effort to educate themselves. They fall for convincing lectures called Financial Advisors. No knowledge on markets, their portfolio depends on the objectivity and trustworthiness of the adviser. They are shaken when loss hits them. Hence end up financial road map of their friends instead of investing as per their own goals. These need to have financial literacy. Avoid tips from friends and colleagues, better to take help of financial planner. 

Saturday, May 27, 2017

Indian Depository Receipts

A foreign company can access Indian securities market for raising funds through issue of Indian Depository Receipts (IDRs).

An IDR is an instrument denominated in Indian Rupees in the form of a depository receipt created by a Domestic Depository (custodian of securities registered with the Securities and Exchange Board of India) against the underlying equity of issuing company to enable foreign companies to raise funds from the Indian securities markets.

An issuing company making an issue of IDR is required to satisfy the following:
(a) it should be listed in its home country.
(b) it should not be prohibited to issue securities by any regulatory body.
(c) it should have a track record of compliance with securities market regulations in its home country.

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Conditions for issue of IDR.
An issue of IDR is subject to the following conditions:

(a) issue size should not be less than Rs.50 crore.

(b) procedure to be followed by each class of applicant for applying should be mentioned in the prospectus;

(c) minimum application amount should be Rs.20,000;

(d) at least 50 %. of the IDR issued should be allotted to qualified institutional buyers on proportionate basis.

(e) the balance 50 % may be allocated among the categories of non-institutional investors and retail individual investors including employees at the discretion of the issuer and the manner of allocation has to be disclosed in the prospectus. Allotment to investors within a category will be on proportionate basis.

Further, atleast 30% of the IDRs issued will be allocated to retail individual investors and in case of under-subscription in retail individual investor category, spill over to other categories to the extent of under-subscription may be permitted.

(f) At any given time, there will be only one denomination of IDR of the issuing company.

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Abbreviations in Financial Markets

The securities markets in India have witnessed several policy initiatives, which has refined
the market micro-structure, modernised operations and broadened investment choices for
Image result for abbreviationsthe investors.

List of Abbreviations

DFIs - Development Financial Institutions
DNS - Deferred Net Settlement
DPs - Depository Participants
DRR - Debenture Redemption Reserve
DSCE - Debt Securities Convertible into Equity
DvP - Delivery versus Payment
ECB - Euro Commercial Borrowings
ECNS - Electronic communication Networks
EDGAR - Electronic Data Gathering, Analysis and Retrieval
EDIFAR - Electronic Data Information Filing and Retrieval
EFT - Electronic Fund Transfer
ELSS - Equity Linked Saving Schemes
EPS - Earning Per Share
ETFs - Exchange Traded Funds
F&O - Futures and Options
F&O - Futures and Options
FCCBs - Foreign Currency Convertible Bonds
FDI - Foreign Direct Investment
FDRs - Foreign Deposit Receipts
FDs - Fixed Deposits
FIBV - International World Federation of Stock Exchanges
FIIs - Foreign Institutional Investors
FIMMDA - Fixed Income Money Markets and Derivatives Association
FIs - Financial Institutions
FRAs - Forward Rate Agreements
FVCIs - Foreign Venture Capital Investors
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
GDRs - Global Deposit Receipts
GDS - Gross Domestic Savings
GNP - Gross National Product
GOI - Government of India
G-Sec - Government Securities
i-BEX - ICICI Securities Bond Index
IBRD - International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
ICAI = Institute of Chartered Accountants of India
ICDR - Issue of Capital and Disclosure Requirements
ICICI - Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India Limited.
ICSE - Inter-Connected Stock Exchange of India Limited
IDBI - Industrial Development Bank of India
IFC - International Finance Corporation
IFSD - Interest Free Security Deposit
IIM - Indian Institute of Management
IISL - India Index Services and Products Limited
IOC - Immediate or Cancel
IOSCO - International Organisation of Securities Commission
IPF - Investor Protection Fund
IPO - Initial Public Offer
IRDA - Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority
IRS - Interest Rate Swap
ISIN - International Securities Identification Number
ISSA - International Securities Services Association
IT - Information Technology
ITM - In-The-Money
LAF - Liquidity Adjustment Facility
LIC - Life Insurance Corporation of India Limited
MCFS - Modified Carry Forward System
MFs - Mutual Funds
MFSS - Mutual Fund Service System
MIBID - Mumbai Inter-bank Bid Rate
MIBOR - Mumbai Inter-bank Offer Rate
MMMF - Money Market Mutual Fund
MNCs - Multi National Companies
MOU - Memorandum of Understanding
MTM - Mark-To-Market
NASDAQ - National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotation System
NAV - Net Asset Value
NBFCs - Non-Banking Financial Companies
NCAER - National Council for Applied Economic Research
NCDs - Non-convertible Debentures
NCDS - Non-convertible Debt Securities
NCFM - NSE’s Certification in Financial Markets
NDS - Negotiated Dealing System
NEAT - National Stock Exchange Automated Trading
NGOs - Non Government Organisations
NIBIS - NSE’s Internet-based Information System
NIC - National Informatics Centre
NPAs - Non Performing Assets
NRIs - Non Resident Indians
NSCCL - National Securities Clearing Corporation of India Limited
NSDL - National Securities Depository Limited
NSE - National Stock Exchange of India Limited
OCBs - Overseas Corporate Bodies
OECLOB - Open Electronic Consolidated Limit Order Book
OIS - Overnight Index Swaps
ORS - Order Routing System
OTC - Over the Counter
OTCEI - Over the Counter Exchange of India Limited
OTM - Out-of the-Money
P/E - ratio Price Earning Ratio
PAN - Permanent Account Number
PCM - Professional Clearing Member
PDAI - Primary Dealers Association of India
PDO - Public Debt Office
PDs - Primary Dealers
PRI - Principal Return Index
PRISM - Parallel Risk Management System
PSUs - Public Sector Undertakings
PV - Present Value
QIBs - Qualified Institutional Buyers
RBI - Reserve Bank of India
ROCs - Registrar of Companies
RTGS - Real time Gross Settlement
SAT - Securities Appellate Tribunal
SC(R)A - Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956
SC(R)R - Securities Contracts (Regulation) Rules, 1957
SCMRD - Society for Capital Market Research and Development
SDs - Satellite Dealers
SEBI - Securities and Exchange Board of India
SEC - Securities Exchange Commission
SGF - Settlement Guarantee Fund
SGL - Subsidiary General Ledger
SGX-DT - The Singapore Exchange Derivatives Trading Limited
SIPC - Securities Investor Protection Corporation
SLR - Statutory Liquidity Ratio
SPAN - Standard Portfolio Analysis of Risks
SPV - Special Purpose Vehicle
SROs - Self Regulatory Organisations
SSS - Securities Settlement System
STP - Straight Through Processing
STRIPS - Separate Trading of Registered Interest and Principal of Securities
SUS 99 - Special Unit Scheme 99
T-Bills - Treasury Bills
TDS - Tax Deducted at Source
TM - Trading Member
TRI - Total Return Index
UTI - Unit Trust of India
VaR - Value at Risk
VCFs - Venture Capital Funds
VCUs - Venture Capital Undertakings
VSAT - Very Small Aperture Terminal
WAN - Wide Area Network
WAP - Wireless Application Protocol
WDM - Wholesale Debt Market Segment of NSE
YTM - Yield to Maturity
ZCYC - Zero Coupon Yield Curve

Monday, May 22, 2017

Know about Regulatory Framework in Indian Securities Market

The five main legislations governing the securities market are: 
(a) the SEBI Act, 1992 which established SEBI to protect investors and develop regulate securities market; 

(b) the Companies Act, 1956, which sets out the code of conduct for the corporate sector in relation to issue, allotment and transfer of securities, and disclosures to be made in public issues; 

(c) the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956, which provides for regulation of transactions in securities through control over stock exchanges; 

(d) the Depositories Act, 1996 which provides for electronic maintenance and transfer of ownership of demat securities; and 

(e) the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 which prevents money laundering and provides for confiscation of property derived from or involved in money laundering.

1. Legislations
Capital Issues (Control) Act, 1947: The Act had its origin during the war in 1943 when the objective was to channel resources to support the war effort. It was retained with some
Related imagemodifications as a means of controlling the raising of capital by companies and to ensure that national resources were channelled into proper lines, i.e. for desirable purposes to serve goals and priorities of the government, and to protect the interests of investors. Under the Act, any firm wishing to issue securities had to obtain approval from the Central Government, which also determined the amount, type and price of the issue. As a part of the liberalisation process, the Act was repealed in 1992 paving way for market determined allocation of resources.

A] SEBI Act, 1992: The SEBI Act, 1992 was enacted to empower SEBI with statutory powers for 
(a) protecting the interests of investors in securities, 
(b) promoting the development of the securities market, and 
(c) regulating the securities market.

Its regulatory jurisdiction extends over corporates in the issuance of capital and transfer of securities, in addition to all intermediaries and persons associated with securities market. It can conduct enquiries, audits and inspection of all concerned and adjudicate offences under the Act. It has powers to register and regulate all market intermediaries and also to penalise them in case of violations of the provisions of the Act, Rules and Regulations made there under. 

SEBI has full autonomy and authority to regulate and develop an orderly securities market.

B) Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956: It provides for direct and indirect control of virtually all aspects of securities trading and the running of stock exchanges and aims to prevent undesirable transactions in securities. It gives Central Government regulatory jurisdiction over
(a) stock exchanges through a process of recognition and continued supervision, 
(b) contracts in securities, and 
(c) listing of securities on stock exchanges.

As a condition of recognition, a stock exchange complies with conditions prescribed by Central Government. Organised trading activity in securities takes place on a specified recognised stock exchange. The stock exchanges determine their own listing regulations which have to conform to the minimum listing criteria set out in the Rules.

C) Depositories Act, 1996: The Depositories Act, 1996 provides for the establishment of depositories in securities with the objective of ensuring free transferability of securities with speed, accuracy and security by 
(a) making securities of public limited companies freely transferable subject to certain exceptions; 
(b) dematerialising the securities in the depository mode; and 
(c) providing for maintenance of ownership records in a book entry form. 

In order to streamline the settlement process, the Act envisages transfer of ownership of securities electronically by book entry without making the securities move from person to person. The Act has made the securities of all public limited companies freely transferable, restricting the company’s right to use discretion in effecting the transfer of securities, and the transfer deed and other procedural requirements under the Companies Act have been dispensed with.

D) Companies Act, 1956: It deals with issue, allotment and transfer of securities and various aspects relating to company management. It provides for standard of disclosure in public issues of capital, particularly in the fields of company management and projects, information about other listed companies under the same management, and management perception of risk factors. It also regulates underwriting, the use of premium and discounts on issues, rights and bonus issues, payment of interest and dividends, supply of annual report and other information.

E) Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002: The primary objective of the Act is to prevent money-laundering and to provide for confiscation of property derived from or involved in money-laundering. 

The term money-laundering is defined as whoever acquires, owns, possess or transfers any proceeds of crime; or knowingly enters into any transaction which is related to proceeds of crime either directly or indirectly or conceals or aids in the concealment of the proceeds or gains of crime within India or outside India commits the offence of money laundering.
Besides providing punishment for the offence of money-laundering, the Act also provides other measures for prevention of Money Laundering. The Act also casts an obligation on the intermediaries, banking companies etc to furnish information, of such prescribed transactions to the Financial Intelligence Unit- India, to appoint a principal officer, to maintain certain records etc.

2. Rules Regulations and Regulators
The Government has framed rules under the SCRA, SEBI Act and the Depositories Act. SEBI has framed regulations under the SEBI Act and the Depositories Act for registration and regulation of all market intermediaries, and for prevention of unfair trade practices, insider trading, etc.

Under these Acts, Government and SEBI issue notifications, guidelines, and circulars which
need to be complied with by market participants. The SROs like stock exchanges have also
laid down their rules and regulations.
The absence of conditions of perfect competition in the securities market makes the role of regulator extremely important. The regulator ensures that the market participants behave in a desired manner so that securities market continues to be a major source of finance for corporate and government and the interest of investors are protected.

The responsibility for regulating the securities market is shared by Department of Economic Affairs (DEA), Department of Company Affairs (DCA), Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and SEBI.

The orders of SEBI under the securities laws are appellable before a Securities Appellate Tribunal (SAT)l.

Most of the powers under the SCRA are exercisable by DEA while a few others by SEBI. The
powers of the DEA under the SCRA are also con-currently exercised by SEBI. The powers in
respect of the contracts for sale and purchase of securities, gold related securities, money market securities and securities derived from these securities and ready forward contracts in debt securities are exercised concurrently by RBI. The SEBI Act and the Depositories Act are mostly administered by SEBI. The rules under the securities laws are framed by government and regulations by SEBI. All these are administered by SEBI. The powers under the Companies Act relating to issue and transfer of securities and non-payment of dividend are administered by SEBI in case of listed public companies and public companies proposing to get their securities listed. The SROs ensure compliance with their own rules as well as with the rules relevant for them under the securities laws.

3. Reforms Since 1990s
Corporate Securities Market With the objectives of improving market efficiency, enhancing transparency, preventing unfair trade practices and bringing the Indian market up to international standards, a package of reforms consisting of measures to liberalise, regulate and develop the securities market was introduced. The practice of allocation of resources among different competing entities as well as its terms by a central authority was discontinued. The issuers complying with the eligibility criteria were allowed freedom to issue the securities at market determined rates.

The secondary market overcame the geographical barriers by moving to screen based trading. Trades enjoyed counter-party guarantee. The trading cycle shortened to a day and trades are settled within 2 working days, while all deferral products were banned. Physical security certificates almost disappeared. A variety of derivative products were permitted. The following paragraphs discuss the principal reform measures undertaken since 1992.

a) SEBI Act, 1992: It created a regulator (SEBI), empowered it adequately and assigned it with the responsibility for (a) protecting the interests of investors in securities, (b) promoting the development of the securities market, and (c) regulating the securities market. Its regulatory jurisdiction extends over corporates in the issuance of capital and transfer of securities, in addition to all intermediaries and persons associated with securities market. All market intermediaries are registered and regulated by SEBI. They are also required to appoint a compliance officer who is responsible for monitoring compliance with securities laws and for redressal of investor grievances. The courts have upheld the powers of SEBI to impose monetary penalties and to levy fees from market intermediaries.

Enactment of SEBI Act is the first attempt towards integrated regulation of the securities market. SEBI was given full authority and jurisdiction over the securities market under the Act, and was given concurrent/delegated powers for various provisions under the Companies Act and the SC(R)A. Many provisions in the Companies Act having a bearing on securities market are administered by SEBI. 

The Depositories Act, 1996 is also administered by SEBI.

b) SEBI Issue of Capital and Disclosure Requirements (ICDR) Regulations 2009
The SEBI (Issue of Capital and Disclosure Requirements) Regulation, 2009. are applicable for public issue; rights issue, preferential issue; an issue of bonus shares by a listed issuer; qualified institutions placement by a listed issuer and issue of Indian Depository Receipts.

The issuer should appoint one or more merchant bankers, at least one of whom should be a lead merchant banker. The issuer should also appoint other intermediaries, in consultation with the lead merchant banker, to carry out the obligations relating to the issue. The issuer should in consultation with the lead merchant banker, appoint only those intermediaries which are registered with SEBI. Where the issue is managed by more than one merchant banker, the rights, obligations and responsibilities, relating inter alia to disclosures, allotment, refund and underwriting obligations, if any, of each merchant banker should be predetermined and disclosed in the offer document. The issuer determines the price of the equity shares and convertible securities in consultation with the lead merchant banker or through the book building process. In case of debt instruments, the issuer determines the coupon rate and conversion price of the convertible debt instruments in consultation with the lead merchant banker or through the book building process.

c) Screen Based Trading: The trading on stock exchanges in India used to take place through open outcry without use of information technology for immediate matching or recording of trades. This was time consuming and inefficient. This imposed limits on trading volumes and efficiency. 
In order to provide efficiency, liquidity and transparency, NSE introduced a nationwide on-line fully-automated screen based trading system (SBTS) where a member can punch into the computer quantities of securities and the prices at which he likes to transact and the transaction is executed as soon as it finds a matching sale or buy order from a counter party.

SBTS electronically matches orders on a strict price/time priority and hence cuts down on time, cost and risk of error, as well as on fraud resulting in improved operational efficiency. It allows faster incorporation of price sensitive information into prevailing prices, thus increasing the informational efficiency of markets. It enables market participants to see the full market on real-time, making the market transparent. It allows a large number of participants, irrespective of their geographical locations, to trade with one another simultaneously, improving the depth and liquidity of the market. It provides full anonymity by accepting orders, big or small, from members without revealing their identity, thus providing equal access to everybody. It also provides a perfect audit trail, which helps to resolve disputes by logging in the trade execution process in entirety. This diverted liquidity from other exchanges and in the very first year of its operation, NSE became the leading stock exchange in the country, impacting the fortunes of other exchanges and forcing them to adopt SBTS also. As a result, manual trading disappeared from India. Technology was used to carry the trading platform to the premises of brokers.

NSE carried the trading platform further to the PCs in the residences of investors through the Internet and to hand-held devices through WAP for convenience of mobile investors. This made a huge difference in terms of equal access to investors in a geographically vast country like India.

d) Trading Cycle: The trades accumulated over a trading cycle and at the end of the cycle, these were clubbed together, and positions were netted out and payment of cash and delivery of securities settled the balance. This trading cycle varied from 14 days for specified securities to 30 days for others and settlement took another fortnight. Often this cycle was not adhered to. Many things could happen between entering into a trade and its performance providing incentives for either of the parties to go back on its promise. This had on several occasions led to defaults and risks in settlement. In order to reduce large open positions, the trading cycle was reduced over a period of time to a week. The exchanges, however, continued to have different weekly trading cycles, which enabled shifting of positions from one exchange to another. Rolling settlement on T+5 basis was introduced in respect of specified scrips reducing the trading cycle to one day. It was made mandatory for all exchanges to follow a uniform weekly trading cycle in respect of scrips not under rolling settlement. All scrips moved to rolling settlement from December 2001. T+5 gave way to T+3 from April 2002 and T+2 since April 2003. The market also had a variety of deferral products like modified carry forward system, which encouraged leveraged trading by enabling postponement of settlement. 

The deferral products have been banned. The market has moved close to spot/cash market.

e) Derivatives Trading: To assist market participants to manage risks better through hedging, speculation and arbitrage, SC(R)A was amended in 1995 to lift the ban on options in securities. However, trading in derivatives did not take off, as there was no suitable legal and regulatory framework to govern these trades. Besides, it needed a lot of preparatory work- the underlying cash markets strengthened with the assistance of the automation of trading and of the settlement system; the exchanges developed adequate infrastructure and the information systems required to implement trading discipline in derivative instruments.

The SC(R)A was amended further in December 1999 to expand the definition of securities to include derivatives so that the whole regulatory framework governing trading of securities could apply to trading of derivatives also. A three-decade old ban on forward trading, which had lost its relevance and was hindering introduction of derivatives trading, was withdrawn and derivatives trading took off in June 2000. 

The Mini derivative Futures & Options contract was introduced for trading on CNX Nifty on January 1, 2008 while the long term option contracts on CNX Nifty were introduced for trading on March 3, 2008.

f) Demutualisation: Historically, brokers owned, controlled and managed stock exchanges. In case of disputes, the self often got precedence over regulations leading inevitably to conflict of interest. The regulators, therefore, focused on reducing dominance of members in the management of stock exchanges and advised them to reconstitute their governing councils to provide for at least 50% non-broker representation. This did not materially alter the situation.
In face of extreme volatility in the securities market, Government proposed in March 2001 to corporatize the stock exchanges by which ownership, management and trading membership would be segregated from one another. Government offered a variety of tax incentives to facilitate corporatisation and demutualization of stock exchanges.
NSE, however, adopted a pure demutualised governance structure where ownership, management and trading are with three different sets of people. This completely eliminated any conflict of interest and helped NSE to aggressively pursue policies and practices within a public interest (market efficiency and investor interest) framework. Currently, there are 19 demutualised stock exchanges.

g) Depositories Act: The earlier settlement system on Indian stock exchanges gave rise to settlement risk due to the time that elapsed before trades are settled. Trades were settled by physical movement of paper. This had two aspects. 

First, the settlement of trade in stock exchanges by delivery of shares by the seller and payment by the purchaser. The stock exchange aggregated trades over a period of time to carry out net settlement through the physical delivery of securities. The process of physically moving the securities from the seller to the ultimate buyer through the seller’s broker and buyer’s broker took time with the risk of delay somewhere along the chain. 

The second aspect related to transfer of shares in favour of the purchaser by the company. The system of transfer of ownership was grossly inefficient as every transfer involved physical movement of paper securities to the issuer for registration, with the change of ownership being evidenced by an endorsement on the security certificate. In many cases the process of transfer took much longer, and a significant proportion of transactions ended up as bad delivery due to faulty compliance of paper work.

Theft, forgery, mutilation of certificates and other irregularities were rampant, and in addition the issuer had the right to refuse the transfer of a security. All this added to costs, and delays in settlement, restricted liquidity and made investor grievance redressal time consuming and at times intractable.

To obviate these problems, the Depositories Act, 1996 was passed to provide for the establishment of depositories in securities with the objective of ensuring free transferability of securities with speed, accuracy and security by 
(a) making securities of public limited companies freely transferable subject to certain exceptions; 
(b) dematerialising the securities in the depository mode; and 
(c) providing for maintenance of ownership records in a book entry form. 

In order to streamline both the stages of settlement process, the Act envisages transfer of ownership of securities electronically by book entry without making the securities move from person to person. In order to promote dematerialisation, the regulator mandated trading and settlement in demat form in an ever-increasing number of securities in a phased manner. The stamp duty on transfer of demat securities was waived. Two depositories, namely, NSDL and CDSL, came up to provide instantaneous electronic transfer of securities. All actively traded scrips are held, traded and settled in demat form. Demat settlement accounts for over 99% of turnover settled by delivery. This has almost eliminated the bad deliveries and associated problems.

To prevent physical certificates from sneaking into circulation, it is mandatory for all IPOs to be compulsorily traded in dematerialised form. The admission to a depository for dematerialisation of securities has been made a prerequisite for making a public or rights issue or an offer for sale. It has also been made compulsory for public listed companies making IPO of any security for Rs.10 crore or more to do the same only in dematerialised form.